Constructivism

What is constructivism?

Constructivism is attributed to the work of four main theorists:

• Jean Piaget – Cognitive constructivism (1972)
• Jerome Bruner – Cognitive learning theory; Discovery learning (1990)
• Lev Vygotsky – Social constructivism (1978)
• John Dewey (1933/1998)

According to constructivists “knowledge is a function of how the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences” (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 62). This learning theory is considered a branch of cognitivism. “Both cognitivists and constructivists view the learner as being actively involved in the learning process, yet the constructivists look at the learner as more than just an active processor of information; the learner elaborates upon and interprets the given information.” (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991)

I believe that the distinction is that “cognitive psychologists think of the mind as a reference tool to the real world and constructivists believe that the mind filters input from the world to produce its own unique reality”. (Jonassen D. H., 1991a). Cognitivists view learning as building and linking new knowledge to discrete memory patterns called schemas. On the other hand, constructivists view memory as fluid experiences (an ever-changing personal construct) not packaged in schemas and learning happens when these experiences are elaborated further and built upon. “Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions” (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 63)

Additionally, the view of learning as a social activity has common ground with Bandura’s social cognitive theory – how children learn from others. Albert Bandura explained the social element of learning as watching what others do and decide if the behaviour should be imitated e.g. learning from a mentor or teacher demonstration. Whereas Vygotsky, a social constructivist emphasises the role of social interactions, language and culture as the driving force for learning. “Constructivist teaching involves students in collaborative groups, such as cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching, and long-term projects” (Jenkins, 2006, p. 3). Therefore, Bandura’s theory is characterised by behavioural development but Vygotsky’s emphasis is on both language and cognitive development. ‘Through others, we become ourselves’. (Lev Vygotsky, 1987)

The two views of constructivism – Social vs Cognitive

As well as social interaction, Lev Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory also emphasised the role of the teacher ‘more knowledgeable other’ as a facilitator in shaping learning. Learning can be boosted by cooperative exercises ‘He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skilful peers – within the zone of proximal development.’ (Saul McLeod, 2012)

Zone of proximal development is “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). In other words, ZPD is a mediation process for the maturing cognitive structures to help learners get to where they cannot reach on their own through modelling, guided practice and group support.

On the contrary, Piaget’s emphasis on the shaping of cognitive development is very different, ‘For Piaget, language is seen as secondary to action, i.e., thought precedes language’ (Saul McLeod, 2018). Vygotsky and Bruner would say that language is the primary cause of cognitive development and not as a result of it. Furthermore, “Piaget believed that children were constructing new knowledge as they moved through different cognitive stages, building on what they already knew” (Shelly, Gunter, & Gunter, 2012).  Therefore, the emphasis of Piaget’s theory is specific to children as individuals and her/his internal construction of knowledge; little importance placed on sociocultural context (environmental factors).

Piaget ‘explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.’ (Saul McLeod, 2018). This means a child’s capacity to understand certain concepts or cognitive tasks depend on the stage of development – a child’s readiness. This aspect of his theory contradicts to what we know now, for example, development can be accelerated and a child’s grasp of ideas can precede the stages. This assumption was rejected by both Vygotsky and Bruner who viewed development as a continuous process.

Piaget later expanded his thinking and explained how a child learns to understand the world using the idea of schemas (a mental model of the world). The cognitive process includes:

Image: Piaget’s schema stages https://mathias-sager.com/2017/11/01/history-and-philosophy-of-learning-theory/

‘Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.’ (Saul McLeod, 2012)

 

Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. He provides the following principles of constructivist learning:

• Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
• Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
• Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

Similarities between Bruner and Piaget (McLeod S.A., 2008)

• Children are born ready to learn a language
• Children are naturally curious about language
• Children’s cognitive structures develop over time
• Children are themselves active participants in the process of learning a language
• Cognitive development includes the acquisition of symbols

Learning scenario: Physics lesson

A constructivist learning approach that I want to elaborate is in a physics classroom where our department have been using lessons developed by specialists. We have learnt to teach many lessons using an inductive learning strategy. Students deepen their understanding by making inferences to look for hidden meanings, seek their own information to support their hypothesis and use science domain specific language. (Core six, Harvey F. et al, ASCD book, 2012)

For example in a weekly long project, students are asked to on the role of police officers trying to identify the type of radiation that killed Litvinenko. The learning is within the context of applying the science in police work. Students worked in groups to gather evidence from different sources, created a fact file for the case and examined data. They then cross-referenced their findings with another group and generated new questions and hypothesis. The final part of the work is to consolidate by presenting their case profile to the class. Students are free to choose their own way of presenting which includes slides, video recording, flipcharts and screencasts. There were a lot of rehearsal and refining ideas before they are able to present to their peers.

In this case, students are not at all passively responding to teachers. In a behaviourist learning approach, the learners are motivated by the grades and positive praise, however, this approach sparks inner curiosity. I believe that the learning scenario mentioned above exemplifies what constructivism is. Katie Datko described the work of two researchers, Piaget and Bruner. They believe that learning is an active process where learners are constantly constructing their knowledge.

In later work, Vygotsky added that learning is also social. In learning about radioactivity, learners had to work socially to construct the fact file to strengthen their case and connect the ideas together. Additionally, they had to learn to use new vocabulary. In terms of ZPD, learners stretched their abilities by creating their own questions to answer and use their peers, internet and teacher as support hubs (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

As the activity is student-centred, the main scaffolding is presented to students on a Google site. Students are able to access the information about the context, supporting resources e.g. an exemplar of a police case profile and guidance on how to search for sources. I think technology has proved useful here. It gives autonomy for each group to organise, lead and assign roles. The teacher’s role essentially is to act as a facilitator providing an overall picture for the context and the mystery to be solved. In the beginning, students shared what they know about radiation and Litvinenko. Then throughout the lesson, the scaffolding was done through listening to students, providing hints and careful questioning to help nudge the direction of the thinking. (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009)

References:

• Jonassen, D. H. (1991a). Evaluating constructivist learning. Educational Technology 31(9), 28-33.
• Duffy, T., & Jonassen, D. (1991). Constructivism: New implications for instructional technology? Education Technology 31(5), 3-12.
• “Through others, we become ourselves.” Vygotskij, L. S. (1987)
• McLeod, S. A. (2012). Zone of proximal development. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
• McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
• McLeod, S. A. (2008). Bruner. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html
• http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Social_Constructivism
• Shelly, Gary, Gunter, Glenda, and Randolph Gunter. Teachers Discovering
  Computers: Integrating Technology in a Connected World. Boston: Cengage
  Learning, 2012. Print.
• Peggy A. Ertmer & Timothy J. Newby, Purdue University. Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective, 1993
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from http://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/social-constructivism/
• Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
• The Core Six: Essential Strategies for Achieving Excellence with the Common Core, Harvey F. Silver, R. Thomas Dewing and Matthew J. Perini, ASCD book, 2012
• Katie Datko, Learning about learning, 2 May 2013
  
• http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html; Driscoll, M.P.(2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp.384-407; Ch.11-Constructivism). Toronto, ON: Pearson
• https://iite.unesco.org/pics/publications/en/files/3214730.pdf